13  Political topics

Keywords

referendum, Centre for Research on Direct Democracy (C2D), direct democracy, report, worldwide

13.1 Comparing topic diversity in Switzerland/Liechtenstein with the rest of the world

Differentiating Switzerland and Liechtenstein in from the rest of the world, we find that the topics of their referendums have been much more diverse. Whereas the rest of the world held the overwhelming majority of referendums on state organisation, Switzerland and Liechtenstein have also been voting on that topic, but not only. Just as frequently, they have been voting on social policy, a bit less frequently on public finance, the economy and a host of other topics.

Figure 13.1: Frequency of top-tier political topics over time
(a) Switzerland and Liechtenstein
(b) rest of the world

13.2 Votes on policies and state organization by regime type

Differentiating the topics of referendums between votes on state organization and on policies and distinguishing between regime types in , we find the following:

  • Over time, liberal democracies have held more votes on actual policies than on state organization.
  • This trend is reversed and accentuated for electoral democracies, electoral autocracies and closed autocracies. Over time, these three regime types have held many more referendums on state organization than on actual policies.

These trends can lead us to conclude that voting on state organization is something countries do regularly, no matter their regime type, whereas almost only liberal democracies seem to be voting on policies.

Figure 13.2: Top-tier political topics dichotomy by regime type since 1900, without Switzerland and Liechtenstein

13.3 Topic segmentation

The interactive figures below show the topic lineage of referendums worldwide according to tier-1, tier-2 and tier-3 topics. Please note that several topics can be assigned to one referendum.

  • Click on the individual segments to explore the topic distribution.
  • Click on the center to return to the overall graph.

shows topic segmentation for all countries contained in the RDB.

Figure 13.3: Referendum topic segmentation (per ‘topic lineage’)
state organisationsocial policyeconomypublic financeforeign policyenvironment and living spacesecurity policytransport and infrastructureeducation and researchenergyagricultureculture, religion and mediapolitical systeminstitutionslegal systemnational identityfederalismcitizens' rightsnot definedhealthsocial groupssocial securitynot definedeconomic policyemploymenttourism and leisurefinancenot definedtaxationpublic expenditurebudget cuts and remediation measuresfinancial systemnot definedEuropean policybilateral treatiesposition on foreign policyinternational organisationsforeign trade policynot defineddevelopment cooperationSwiss abroaddiplomacyenvironmenthousingsoilnot definedarmypublic securitynational economic supplynot definedroad transporttransport policyrail transportnot definedair transportposttelecommunicationsshippingresearcheducation policyschoolsuniversitiesnot definedprofessional and vocational educationnuclear energyenergy policyhydro-electric poweralternative energyoil and gasnot definedcrop productionagricultural policylivestocknot definedfishing, hunting and petsforestrymedia and communicationreligion, churchescultural policynot definedlanguage policysportconstitutionelectoral systemnot definedprocedure for constitutional reformlegislative proceduregovernment, administrationparliamentnot definedcourtsnational bankfundamental rightscriminal lawnot definedcitizenshipprivate lawdata protectioninternational lawintergovernmental relationsterritorial questionsdivision of tasksnot definedvoting rightsreferendumnot definedcitizens' initiativesaddictive substanceshealth policynot definedmedical research and technologyreproductive medicinemedicinesimmigration policystatus of womenchildren and young peoplefamily policyhomosexualsrefugeespersons with disabilitiessenior citizensnot definedpension insurancehealth and accident insuranceunemployment insurancematernity insurancenot defineddisability insuranceoccupational benefits provisionwelfarecompensation for loss of earnings for persons on military service or civil protection dutystructural policynot definedpricing policyconsumer protectionshort-term economic policycompetition policyemployment policyemployment conditionsworking hoursnot definedindustrial relationslottery and gamblinghospitalitytourismnot definedmonetary policybanks, stock exchange, insurancenot definedindirect taxationtax policytax systemdirect taxationnot definedEUnot definedEEAother European organisationsindependencenot definedneutralitynot definedother international organisationsUNnot definedcustomsenvironmental policyprotection of nature and cultural heritagenot definedanimal protectionwater pollution controlair quality controlnoise protectionsoil protectiontenancy issuesbuilding of residential housing, property ownershipnot definedland lawspatial planningnot definedarmsarmed forces in generalnot definedconscientious objection, civilian serviceinternational deploymentmilitary organisationmilitary trainingabolition of the armed forcesmilitary facilitiesstate securitycivil protectionpolicenot definednot definedroad constructionheavy trafficnot definedtransit trafficurban transportnot definedgoods trafficpassenger trafficgenetic engineeringnot definedanimal testingradio, television and electronic mediafreedom of the mediamedia policypressnot defined

shows topic segmentation for all countries except Switzerland and Liechtenstein. As we can see, the share of referendums on state organisation increases greatly.

Figure 13.4: Referendum topic segmentation, excl. Switzerland and Liechtenstein (per ‘topic lineage’)
state organisationsocial policyforeign policyeconomysecurity policyenvironment and living spacepublic financeeducation and researchtransport and infrastructureenergyculture, religion and mediaagriculturepolitical systeminstitutionsnational identitylegal systemfederalismcitizens' rightsnot definedhealthsocial groupssocial securitynot definedEuropean policyposition on foreign policybilateral treatiesinternational organisationsnot definedforeign trade policydevelopment cooperationdiplomacyeconomic policynot definedtourism and leisureemploymentfinancearmypublic securitynot definednational economic supplyenvironmentsoilhousingnot definedpublic expendituretaxationnot definedbudget cuts and remediation measureseducation policynot definedschoolsresearchuniversitiesprofessional and vocational educationrail transportroad transportnot definedair transporttransport policytelecommunicationsnuclear energyenergy policyoil and gasnot definedmedia and communicationreligion, churchesnot definedcultural policylanguage policysportfishing, hunting and petsagricultural policyforestrynot definedconstitutionelectoral systemnot definedprocedure for constitutional reformlegislative proceduregovernment, administrationparliamentnot definedcourtsnational bankfundamental rightscriminal lawnot definedcitizenshipprivate lawdata protectioninternational lawterritorial questionsintergovernmental relationsdivision of tasksnot definedvoting rightsnot definedreferendumcitizens' initiativesaddictive substanceshealth policynot definedmedicinesreproductive medicinehomosexualschildren and young peoplefamily policyrefugeespersons with disabilitiesstatus of womennot definedimmigration policysenior citizenspension insurancenot definedEUnot definedother European organisationsEEAindependencenot definedother international organisationsnot definedUNnot definedcustomsstructural policynot definedconsumer protectionpricing policycompetition policyshort-term economic policylottery and gamblingnot definedtourismemployment policyemployment conditionsworking hoursnot definedmonetary policybanks, stock exchange, insurancenot definedarmsnot definedmilitary organisationarmed forces in generalinternational deploymentmilitary trainingabolition of the armed forcesconscientious objection, civilian servicemilitary facilitiescivil protectionstate securitypolicenot definedenvironmental policyprotection of nature and cultural heritagewater pollution controlnot definedanimal protectionsoil protectionland lawspatial planningnot definedbuilding of residential housing, property ownershipnot definedtenancy issuestax policynot defineddirect taxationindirect taxationtax systemgenetic engineeringnot definednot definedgoods trafficpassenger trafficradio, television and electronic mediamedia policynot defined

shows topic segmentation only for Switzerland and Liechtenstein. Topics vary much more than in the rest of the world.

Figure 13.5: Referendum topic segmentation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein only (per ‘topic lineage’)
state organisationsocial policypublic financeeconomyenvironment and living spacesecurity policytransport and infrastructureagricultureforeign policyeducation and researchenergyculture, religion and medialegal systeminstitutionspolitical systemcitizens' rightsfederalismnational identitynot definedsocial groupssocial securityhealthnot definedtaxationbudget cuts and remediation measuresfinancial systempublic expenditurenot definedeconomic policyemploymentfinancetourism and leisurenot definedenvironmenthousingsoilnot definedarmypublic securitynational economic supplynot definedroad transporttransport policyrail transportair transportpostnot definedshippingtelecommunicationscrop productionagricultural policylivestocknot definedfishing, hunting and petsforestryEuropean policyforeign trade policybilateral treatiesinternational organisationsposition on foreign policydevelopment cooperationSwiss abroadnot definedresearchschoolsuniversitiesprofessional and vocational educationeducation policynot definednuclear energyenergy policyhydro-electric poweralternative energyoil and gasnot definedmedia and communicationcultural policyreligion, churcheslanguage policysportnot definedfundamental rightscriminal lawcitizenshipnot definedprivate lawdata protectioninternational lawparliamentgovernment, administrationcourtsnational banknot definedelectoral systemlegislative procedureprocedure for constitutional reformconstitutionnot definedreferendumvoting rightscitizens' initiativesnot definedintergovernmental relationsdivision of tasksterritorial questionsnot definedimmigration policystatus of womenchildren and young peoplefamily policyrefugeeshomosexualssenior citizenspersons with disabilitiesnot definedpension insurancehealth and accident insuranceunemployment insurancematernity insurancedisability insuranceoccupational benefits provisionwelfarenot definedcompensation for loss of earnings for persons on military service or civil protection dutyaddictive substanceshealth policymedical research and technologynot definedreproductive medicinemedicinesindirect taxationtax policytax systemdirect taxationnot definedstructural policypricing policyshort-term economic policynot definedconsumer protectioncompetition policyemployment policyemployment conditionsworking hoursnot definedindustrial relationsmonetary policybanks, stock exchange, insurancenot definedlottery and gamblinghospitalitytourismnot definedenvironmental policyprotection of nature and cultural heritagenot definedanimal protectionwater pollution controlair quality controlnoise protectionsoil protectiontenancy issuesbuilding of residential housing, property ownershipnot definedland lawspatial planningnot definedarmsarmed forces in generalconscientious objection, civilian serviceabolition of the armed forcesinternational deploymentmilitary facilitiesmilitary trainingmilitary organisationnot definedstate securitycivil protectionnot definedpoliceroad constructionnot definedheavy trafficnot definedtransit trafficurban transportgoods trafficpassenger trafficnot definedEUEEAnot definednot definedcustomsUNnot definednot definedindependenceneutralitynot definedanimal testinggenetic engineeringradio, television and electronic mediafreedom of the mediapressnot defined